India   Orissa

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The shadow theatre of Orissa is undoubtedly one of the oldest still surviving examples of India. The only play performed is the Ramayana. While at the end of the 20th century, there was only a single puppeteer left, all the towns would commission at least one performance annually to see off disasters and calamities.

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Every character is necessarily made out of deerskin out of respect for the respective personality portrayed. When a character is finished, offerings are made so that the respective divinity endows life to the puppet and when already too worn to continue performing, they are laid to rest by being submerged in a river and accompanied by prayers. These characters, normally stored by puppeteers in their own homes, are extremely well characterised and which also confers them with an odd appearance. Their design may initially appear basic but they hold their own very particular power of attraction. They do not have moveable joints and are not painted. Beyond the characters themselves, other puppets represent features from the scenery such as trees and mountains.

 

The light behind the screen is provided by an oil light with a bowl of oil fitted with three wicks placed on a platform on top of a bamboo stand resting on the ground to ensure that the light focuses practically in the middle of the canvas. The only musical accompaniment is provided by percussion, one low footstool with either two or four pairs of small cymbals on its ends (khanjani) and two pieces of wood (daskathi) that are played one-handed as though castanets. The musicians and the puppeteers sing in conjunction with each other.

 

Curiously, this theatre is called Ravan Chaya, that means 《the shadow of Ravana》 which suggests this character has a positive dimension to the contrary of what happens in the classical version in which Ravana represents Evil. We most certainly encounter here the influence of both Jainism and Buddhism. Jainism is believed to have reached Orissa in the 6th century BC with Buddhism arriving in the 3rd century BC. These two religions would have held a predominant influence through to the 6th century when Brahmanism, which stands in opposition to these two beliefs, finally prevailed. The ancient version of the Ramayana, the Panmacharya by Vimal Suri, presents Ravana as a positive character and practically at the same level of Rama. In this version, considered to date to the 4th century, Ravana is not slain by Rama but rather by his brother Lakasmana, who ends up in hell for this crime whilst Ravana, after going through various reincarnations attains sanctity. Ravana is cited with great respect in all the leading Buddhist tests as Lankavatara Sutra. Given that there are also ancient Jainist texts for shadow theatre, there is every likelihood that Orissa was the location for an initial Jainist version of Ramayana.

 

However, the current repertoire, which is conveyed orally and contains scope for improvisation, is based on the local version of Ramayana, entitles Vichitra Ramayana. This was written by the poet Viswanath Khuntia, who lived in the late 7th century and the early years of the 8th century. This version is far more suitable to this type of theatre as, and contrary to the other approximately fifty versions in local languages, it was written in a popular style and even including indications as to the melodies that should be performed while singing. Nevertheless, very commonly, other popular songs were preferred to those set down by the poet despite these otherwise being more in harmony with this type of spectacle.

 

The plot generically follows the classical version of Valmiki and is also divided up into seven sections with each representing one particular night and hence correspondingly performed over a one week cycle. After offerings are made to Ganesh and Rama, two clowns, the Barber and his grandson, take the stage to engage in humorous dialogue that introduces the episode that is to be performed on that occasion.

 

It was unquestionably this type of shadow theatre that spread to Java, alongside Hinduism, in the 7th century as many of the technical terms on Indonesian shadows theatre are originally from the language of Orissa.

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